How did Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani formulate the theory of Quranic nazm (coherent structure) in "Dala'il al-I'jaz," and can it succeed as a contemporary philosophical argument?

Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani (d. 471 AH/1078 CE) — the Ash'arite scholar of rhetoric and grammar — presented in "Dala'il al-I'jaz" the most profound classical theory of Quranic inimitability (i'jāz). His theory of "nazm" (coherent structure) shifted the discussion from the level of individual words and partial constructions to the level of the overall structure of discourse. The contemporary question: Can this theory be formulated as a philosophical argument that withstands modern academic criticism?

Inadequate Responses to Avoid

From some defenders of i'jāz:

"Al-Jurjani proved i'jāz definitively; no further work is needed." A reductive simplification. Al-Jurjani offered a profound theory worthy of development, but claiming it is "definitive proof" ignores contemporary epistemological challenges.

"The theory of nazm is clear and needs no philosophical formulation." A methodological error. Classical rhetorical concepts require precise translation into contemporary philosophical language to be evaluated academically.

From some critics:

"Nazm is merely subjective rhetorical taste and cannot be an argument." Reductionist. Al-Jurjani provides objective criteria for nazm, even if their application requires linguistic expertise.

"Modern linguistics has surpassed the concept of nazm." A claim requiring examination. Some of al-Jurjani's concepts anticipate modern linguistic theories (coherence, discourse structure).

Al-Jurjani's Theory of Nazm

The central concept: Inimitability lies not in individual words, nor in abstract meanings, but in "nazm" — the deliberate pursuit of grammatical meanings in arranging speech according to purposes.

"Know that nazm is nothing but placing your speech in the position required by grammatical knowledge, working according to its laws and principles, knowing the paths that have been laid out so you do not deviate from them, and preserving the patterns drawn for you so you do not violate any of them" (Dala'il al-I'jaz, p. 81).

But al-Jurjani does not mean mere grammatical correctness. The intention is: selecting the optimal grammatical structure from among possible alternatives to achieve the rhetorical purpose with utmost precision. Every change in nazm — fronting/backing, mention/deletion, definition/indefiniteness — affects the overall meaning.

Quranic Application

Al-Jurjani's famous example: {Say: He is Allah, One} [al-Ikhlas: 1]

Why "aḥad" (One) rather than "wāḥid" (one)? Al-Jurjani analyzes: "aḥad" negates multiplicity from every aspect, while "wāḥid" refers to an individual from a genus. The nazm here chose the word that negates composition and division absolutely, harmonizing with the doctrinal context.

Another example: {And it was said: O earth, swallow your water, and O sky, cease} [Hud: 44]

Al-Jurjani analyzes how each grammatical element (addressing the inanimate, the imperative, sentence ordering) contributes to the overall meaning: absolute divine control over the universe. Changing any element weakens the effect.

The Philosophical Structure of the Argument

Al-Jurjani's theory can be reformulated as a philosophical argument:

1. Linguistic premise: Every natural language has a limited number of possible grammatical structures for expressing a given meaning.

2. Rhetorical premise: Among these structures, some are more suitable than others for achieving specific communicative purposes (clarity, impact, precision).

3. Empirical claim: The Quranic text always chooses the optimal structure for its purpose in its context, with precision surpassing ordinary human capacity.

4. Conclusion: This indicates a source transcending ordinary human ability.

Contemporary Philosophical Challenges

Challenge of objective measurement: How do we determine "optimality" objectively? Al-Jurjani relies on trained rhetorical taste. But this raises the question: Can more rigorous criteria be developed?

Contemporary attempts: Some researchers (like Muhammad Abdullah Darraz in "al-Naba' al-'Azim") have tried to develop quasi-quantitative criteria. But the basic problem remains: natural language is too complex to be reduced to purely mathematical criteria.

Challenge of cultural relativity: Is rhetorical "optimality" culturally relative? What a 5th-century Hijri Arab considers "optimal" may differ from what a contemporary reader sees.

Possible response: Al-Jurjani does not claim that every aspect of nazm is clear to every reader. Rather, he claims that those who delve deeply into the Arabic language and its system will recognize the superiority of Quranic nazm. This makes the argument conditional on linguistic expertise, but does not negate its objectivity.

Challenge of alternative explanations: Could not the excellence of Quranic nazm be explained by exceptional human genius (poetic genius)?

Al-Jurjani's implicit response: Human genius — however great — shows variation. The Quran maintains a single level of precision across highly diverse subjects and contexts (legislation, stories, doctrine, argumentation). This consistency in excellence transcends the usual human pattern.

Possible Contemporary Development

To transform al-Jurjani's theory into a stronger contemporary philosophical argument:

1. Integration with modern linguistics: Merging al-Jurjani's concepts with contemporary discourse theories (discourse analysis, pragmatics) to develop more precise analytical tools.

2. Comparative studies: Systematic comparison between Quranic nazm and other Arabic texts from the same period using specific criteria.

3. Computational analysis: Using computational linguistics tools to measure aspects of textual coherence and structure (with caution against reductionism).

Balanced Critical Position

Al-Jurjani's theory of nazm provides a profound framework for understanding i'jāz, but transforming it into a "contemporary philosophical argument" faces challenges:

Strengths:
- Focuses on structural characteristics amenable to analysis (not merely subjective impressions)
- Anticipates modern linguistic concepts
- Provides an explanation for the Quran's sustained excellence across literary genres

Weaknesses:
- Depends on high linguistic expertise for verification
- Difficulty in establishing rigorous objective criteria for optimality
- Needs development to address contemporary linguistic criticism

Cumulative Conclusion

The theory of nazm — when carefully formulated — contributes to the cumulative rational preponderance (rajḥān ʿaqlī) favoring the divine origin of the Quran. But alone it does not constitute "proof" in the strict philosophical sense. Its strength increases when combined with other evidence (historical challenge, content, impact).

Al-Jurjani himself did not claim that the theory of nazm rationally compels the denier, but rather that it reveals an aspect of Quranic excellence for those with linguistic insight. This aligns with the method of rational preponderance: providing preponderant reasons, not definitive proofs.

Advanced Reading

- Advanced level: Nazm between al-Jurjani and al-Sakkaki
- Advanced level: Orientalist criticism of the theory of rhetorical i'jāz
- Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani, Dala'il al-I'jaz (ed. Mahmud Shakir)
- Muhammad Abdullah Darraz, al-Naba' al-'Azim (Dar al-Qalam)
- Navid Kermani, God is Beautiful: The Aesthetic Experience of the Quran (Polity, 2015)
- "Formulation: Jurjani's Theory of Nazm" page on the website