Routledge History of Philosophy, Vol. 07.. The Nineteenth Century

This volume in the Routledge History of Philosophy series examines the complex philosophical landscape of the nineteenth century, a period marked by profound transformations in how philosophers approached questions about God, religion, and metaphysics. Ten's editorial framework presents the century as a crucial transitional moment when traditional theistic certainties faced unprecedented challenges from scientific naturalism, historical criticism, and new forms of philosophical skepticism.

The collection traces how German idealism, particularly through Hegel, attempted to reconcile religious consciousness with philosophical reason, proposing that the divine unfolds through historical development rather than existing as a transcendent being. This dialectical approach profoundly influenced subsequent debates, as philosophers grappled with whether God could be understood through speculative reason or required a leap of faith. The volume examines how Schopenhauer's pessimistic atheism and Nietzsche's proclamation of God's death emerged partly as reactions against idealist attempts to rationalize religion.

Ten's contributors analyze the century's distinctive methodological innovations, particularly the rise of historical consciousness that transformed how philosophers understood religious claims. The historical-critical method, applied to biblical texts and religious traditions, challenged literal interpretations of scripture and traditional proofs for God's existence. The volume demonstrates how this historicist turn created new possibilities for understanding religion as a human phenomenon while simultaneously undermining traditional theological authority.

The work explores how British empiricism evolved through Mill and others who sought naturalistic explanations for religious belief, treating it as a psychological or sociological phenomenon rather than a response to divine reality. Simultaneously, the collection addresses counter-movements like Kierkegaard's existential defense of faith and the Catholic revival's reassertion of traditional theism against modernist challenges.

Ten's editorial approach emphasizes dialogue between competing perspectives rather than privileging any single stance. The volume illuminates how nineteenth-century thinkers established enduring frameworks for debating God's existence: the conflict between scientific and religious worldviews, the problem of reconciling historical criticism with faith, and questions about whether religious experience constitutes valid evidence. By presenting these debates through careful intellectual history, the collection reveals how contemporary discussions about God remain deeply indebted to nineteenth-century formulations, making this period essential for understanding both the roots of modern atheism and the transformation of theistic philosophy.