Pagans and Philosophers: The Problem of Paganism from Augustine to Leibniz

This monograph traces the evolution of Christian philosophical engagement with paganism from late antiquity through the early modern period, examining how successive generations of thinkers grappled with the theological and philosophical challenge posed by virtuous non-Christians. Marenbon demonstrates that the "problem of paganism" - whether and how pagans could achieve salvation or possess genuine virtue without Christian revelation - served as a crucial catalyst for developments in natural theology, ethics, and philosophical anthropology.

The study begins with Augustine's influential but restrictive position that denied true virtue or salvation to pagans, then tracks the gradual expansion of philosophical possibilities through medieval scholasticism. Marenbon shows how thinkers like Abelard, Aquinas, and Dante developed increasingly sophisticated frameworks that allowed for pagan virtue and even potential salvation through implicit faith or natural reason. The analysis reveals how engagement with pagan philosophy, particularly Aristotle, forced Christian thinkers to articulate more precise distinctions between natural and supernatural knowledge of God.

Central to Marenbon's argument is the claim that debates about paganism drove key innovations in medieval and early modern thought about the relationship between reason and revelation. He demonstrates how the recovery of ancient texts created pressure to accommodate the evident wisdom of pagan philosophers within Christian frameworks, leading to theories about natural law, the light of reason, and the universal availability of certain truths about God. The book traces these developments through Renaissance humanism into early modern philosophy, culminating with Leibniz's radical proposal that even polytheistic pagans might achieve salvation through their partial grasp of divine truth.

The monograph makes a significant contribution to understanding how the God debate evolved within Christian philosophy by showing that external challenges from paganism were as formative as internal theological disputes. Marenbon's meticulous intellectual history reveals how the "virtuous pagan" served as a test case that repeatedly forced refinements in arguments about natural theology, the scope of divine revelation, and the relationship between morality and religious belief. By demonstrating the continuity of this problematic from patristic through early modern thought, the work illuminates how Christianity's philosophical encounter with religious otherness shaped core arguments about the knowability and nature of God that remain influential in contemporary philosophy of religion.